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Sameness and Difference in Transfer Ference Marton02（第2页）

&ualLearning

&uallearningasanacademicspecializatioablishedbyEleanibson.In1955shepublishedahighlyiiPsychologicalReview，“PerceptualLeario?”

，coauthoredbyherhusband，JamesJ.Gibsohuedthattherearetwoschperceptuallearning.Agtotheeschool，wereceivescarce，impoverishedinformationfromthee，whichmustbeaddedtoandenriched.Agtothedifferentiationschool，wereuatiohatwehavetodifferentiateorselesequeoperceiveamouofindthedifferearemostcritirelatioals.J.J.GibsonandGibson（1955）demolearningtokhing（inthesenseofbei）isamatterhowitdiffersfrs（i.e.，beiodistherespewhichitdiffersfrs）.

TheecologicalapproachtoperceptuallearningedbyEleanibsonbelohedifferentiationsherbookwithAnneDicludedtheGestaltistsinthesamecamp，whereasthebehavioristsanditivistswerelistedutheories（E.J.Gibson＆Dick，2000）.

&odifferentiatemeansmakingfinerandfinerdisations.Thisdifferentiationamoutuinguishiicaldifferebeusedfdistins.Thesedistiuresaresimplydimensionsinwhigsvary，andtheybeusedfapartinstannohus，perceptuallearningamountstdis-tiuresorcritisionsofvariation.IfInolytheterminologyoftraoperceptuallearinSituationAthelearodiffereweeninstaninstauatioerssomethingthatiseitheraninstanoheextentthatthelearcorrectlydifferentiatianouationBasaresultofhavingpartiSituatiohereositiveimpaSituationAonSituationB.IfweagreewiththeGibsonianviewofperceptuallearning，thenperformauationBisafunofthedifferehinSituatiohediffereionsAandB.Eleanibson（1969）citedatraudycarriedoutbyVurpillotetal.（1966）inwhichitwasdemoperceptuallearninginvandtransferringdistihatseparateinstannoninstances（asopposedtandtransferriheinstanceshaveinon）.

Thisistrue，oflyifthelearnersaregivenopportunitiesfsuchdisatioionfromPavlovisrelevahatreflexesthatwereedtoastimulusweregehersimilarstimuli（duetosameness）.

&questionwas，then，howdifferentiationbelearned?Pavlovbelievedthatthereweretwooptions.Oherrepeatedlyreiioimulus，oronetrodureirastalongwiththereiioimulus.Hefoumethoddidnotwork.Therewasiohoughthestimuluseatedwithreihan1000times.Oherhand，evenasingleappli-ofurastcouldleadtorapiddifferentiation（Pavlov，1927，ascitedbyE.J.Gibson，1969）.

&erinE.J.Gibson's（1969）bookoiinswithaquotefromthe19th-turyBritishphilosopherandtheologiaiexplaihedifferentiatirasts.

Whenaredivoryball，seeime，hasbeenillleaveameionofitself，inwhichallthatsimultaneouslygaveuswillindistinguishablycoexist.Letawhiteballsucceedtoit;now，andnotbefore，willanattributedetachitself，andthecolor，byfortrast，beshakenoutintroueballbereplaegg，andthisnewdifferencewillbriosslumber，andthusthatwhibybeingsimplyaoutfrsesforusfirstaredobjearedrou，andsoon（Martineau，EssaysPhilosophidTheological，asquotedbyE.J.Gibson，1969）.

Thisisaingquoteiha.First，itdescribeswhatwemightcallretrospesfer:howtheimageofaisaffectedbyexperiencesfollowihoftheimage.Sed，welookattheeffethereversedireelyhowtheperofobjectsisaffectedbypreviousexperieheobservermayedoutaheformofthewhiteeggwithouthavihewhiteballjustbefore，normayshehaveseparatedoutahecolorofthewhiteballwithouthaviheredballjustbefore.

M

In1975，Schmidtpublishedhisarticle“ASchemaTheoryofDiscreteMotorSkillLearning”

，whichhasbeehighlyiiali.Oknownimplisofthetheoryisthevariabilityofpracticehypothesis，whichstatesthatvariedpractice（“SituationA”

ierminology）islikelytoenhananewsituation（SituationB）.Whatisiingisthattherelationshipisnotsideredasafunewosituations，butasafunofdifferencesacrosssituatiohesisreceivedagreatdealofsupportfromempiricaltestsduringtheyearsfollowingitspubli（Shapiro＆Schmidt，1982;Shea＆Wulf，2005;Sherwood＆Lee，2003）.

&uslookatatypicalstudyoxley（1979）.Eighty，aged6to8yearsold，partitheexperimeributedacrosstwos.Thetaskwastotrytohitatarget（acarpet）withashuttleeofthesthethrew20timesfromfivedifferentangles，eaedistaingonthefloorwiththeirfeetpointingtopositewall.Iionthehadtothrowshuttleesfromthesameposition.Afterwardsbothgroupstriedtohitthetargetwithshuttleaion.Thegroupsubjectedtothevariedsucceededbestwiththetask.

KerrandBooth（1978）ilarstudy，inwhichthetaskwasagaintohitahecriticaldiffereswasthedistahetaskwastohitatargetwithmihirty-sixwithanaverageageof8.3yearsand28withanaverageageof12.5yearspartitheexperiment.Bothagegroupswererandomlyassigyandschemagroups.Allweretestedinthebeginningaheexperiment，theyrfrom3ftandtheolderfrom4ft.Thedeviatiowasmeasuredaftereachthrowandthediffereheaverageerroratthebeginningaheexperimentwasthemeasureoftheeffectofthepractithetwotests.

&iceforthespecificitygroupsistedofagreathrows，allfromthedistafortheyoungerand4ftfortheolder.intheschemagrouppracticedatavarietyofdistaneofwhichwasthedistaisioheintheschemagroupoutperformedtheiygroup.Therefsomethihanwhatwastestedwasmoreeffepragexactlywhatwastested.

Althoughthevariabilityofpracticehypothesisreceivedmuchempiriidt's（1975）theoryhasbeenseriouslyquestioned（seeShea＆Wulf，2005;Sherwood＆Lee，2003）.IwouldalsoliketoihevariabilityofpracticehypothesisinawaythatdiffersfromSchmidt&#inalformulatiovariedprahaureperformahhaributioiorerobustschemagbehavior.Myiionisthatvariationisnecessaryfordist，andthattheleardiscriticaldiffereioobeabletoadjusttoions.

MakiicUseofVariationtoEnhang

&aioweenwhatstudeheandeningintheairalquestioiohisquestionhastypiaddressedbyrelatinglearnihewaysinwhigisanized（individualizedinstrus，whole-classteag，pr，peerlearning，reciprocalteadsodifferenhisanecessarilysayanythingaboutdifferehetoraboutdifferelearo.Ioideer，wehavetoparedifferentsinwhichthesametisaddressed.emightwhenspeteh，someofitsaspectsarevaried，whereasothersremaininvariant.Whenlookingatthegraphicalrepresentatioionsoftheformy=ax+b，forieachermightkeepbinvariant（e.g.，b=0）andsubstitutedifferentvaluesf.，a=1，12，2，3，…），thusfogattentionontheslopeoftheline.Inasimilarmaeachermightkeeptheslopeinvariantandvarythebvalue，thusfogattentiononparallellinesandvaryis.Ifonlytheslopeisvaried，thestudentsmightlearhing.Ifoerceptisvaried，thestudentsmightlearhing.Ifbothparametersarevaried，thestudentsmightlearnathirdthing.Ifbothsourcesofvariationaremixedinarandomfashiolearlyagain.Ifthereisonelineinaatesystemohestudentsgebypluggivaluesiiony=ax+b，theoutayagai.

Differevariesandwhatisinvariantmakedifferentthingspossibletolearhepatternofvariationandinvariandealingwithsomepartitentishighlycorrelatedwithwhatthestudethatple，MartonandPang（2006）foundthatinfiveparablehigh-agsedaryschoolclasses，taughtbyfivehighlyexperieheproportioswhomasteredadiffiiceptvariedbetween6%and97%dependingonthedifferentpatternsofvariationandinvarianhowsystematicallythosepatternswereusedinthes.IwosesIexploretheeffectofthesystematicuseofvariationinsbygseveralexamples.

Learningesewords.

IntwoparablesedgradeHongKosweresupposedtolearnsevenesewordsiofashortstory（Chik＆Lo，2004）.Theirsuccesswasmeasuredbymeansofa“cloze-test”

，ashorthanumberofwordsdeleted，leavihewords.Thestudeofillihtheappropriatewords.Itossibletofillthegapsbyusingthesevenwordsthathadbeenstudied.InClassA，all30studeaskcorrectly，whereasinly9of31studentsdidso.Whenparinghowthesametwashahetwoclasses，itwasfoundthatinClassAdifferesofea，meaning，pronun）weredealtwithinwithoheseaspectswerekepttogetherforeachword）.Bywayoftrast，inClassBeachaspectwasdealtwithseparately（i.e.，wroupedagtoeachaspect）.ThismeantthatinClassAtheiyoftheaiheirrelatedaspectswerekepttogether），whereasinClassBtheaspectswerekeptseparateandtheearedonceforeachaspect.

Thesametwasthusdealtwithinbothclasses，butdifferently.InClassA，foreachectsvaried.Intrast，inClassB，foreachaspectthewordsvaried.Thus，thediffereodowithhowthetwasstructured，rimarilyandwhatvariedsedarily，alearionwasattractedto.

Inmanyofthepreviousexamplespresehisarticle，Ihavearguedfortheimportarastandofvariationincriticalaspethestudyofeseasimportantthataicalaspe，meaning，andpronun）variedtogether（fromwordtoword）.Asthewordswerebasiookenwordstothestudentsalready，iolinkthespokenwordstothewrittenforms（charadtotheelaboratedmeanings，itwasadvahediffereether.ThisshowsthattherearenopatternsofvariationoriaresuperiorfortransferihepointIwapatternsofvariationandiicallyimpahespecifidepeicularobjectandonthegroupofleariginthelearningexperience.

Learniones.

Ihedistosideraninstrualapproawhichthepatternofvariationandiheoreticallybased.[3]KiandMarton（2003）ihedifficultprocessesetonesbyadultfoneseisaplexdialeese，andspokenesewuishedbybothsoundahismeansthattwoormorewordsprohesamesoundhave（andusuallydohave）twoormoredifferentmeaintoch.Therearesixdiffereonese:highlevel，highrising，midlevel，lowlevel，lowfalling，andl.ObelievethatesespeakersaremoreseonaldifferehisisagrayandDowns（1993）parednativespeakersofEnglishandeseandcludedthattheformeractuallymadefinerdisationsinpair—wiseparisonsofsingulartoheremustbeainers'difficultieswithese.

Differech（ofwhiakeupaspecialcase）arealsoimportantinnontonallaiheyareusedtomakedistinsatthesentencelevel（e.g.，betweeiveaivemodes），nottoindicatedifferethewordlevel.tly，eakerofanatonallaonallanguageinwhicheverywordhasbothasoundandato，sheautomaticallytriestodistiweenmeaningsintermsofdifferensoundalone.Bydoingsosheremainsinakiialdistinperorinprodubetweenwordsthathavethesamesoundbutdifferenttos.Whenvariationinsoundissuppressedandvariationintoneandmeaningisafforded，thelear，however，usetonalvariatidisti>

KiandMarton（2003）foundthatbyinvitingnoolearsofesewordsthathavethesamesoundbutdifferenttoheylearendtotonaldifferenakedistiweenmeaningsonthewordlevel.Thisrepresentedafulearners'attentioonlydidtheleareratdistinguishiweenmeaniardsthewordsitheyalsogotbetteratlearningtodistiweenmeanioioweensoundspressed.Inafollow-upstudy，KiandMarton（2005）demobyfirstseparatingvariationintoneandmeaningandkeepingsoundinvariaingvariationinsoundandmeanioneinvariant，andfiingallthreedimensionsvarysimultaneously，learnersmakegreatprogresstowardhandlingtheplexitiesofeverydayuseofese.

&ospellthetj（dinSwedish.

Audyshowedthatwhatdistinsthelearnersmake—aomake—ishighlyimp.AgroupofSwedishteachers，wwitharesearcher，desigtheythoughtwouldtributetstudents'spellingofwordswithatjsound（Holmqvist，Gustavss，2005;iherearedifferentellthissoundthattoverembasedont-vowelbinatioaiioeacherscarriedoutthelessohegroup.Afterwardsthegrhelesson，anditwascarriedoutbyasedteacherwithanroupofstudents.Thegrouprevisedthelessonagain，anditwascarriedoutbyathirdteacherwithathirdgroupofstudespartigihreelessonsdiffereheywerekepttogetherforonelessonoheyreturheirowhreegroupstookthesamespelliimmediatelyafterthelesson，againafter4weeks，andonafteranother8weeks.Ohegroupslaggedbehiwogroupsinitiallybutsurpassedbothgroupssometimeaftertheexperiment.Thisgroupimprovedo，whereastheroupsremaihesamelevelhtlyweaker.Theresearvestigatedhowtheinstrualtreatmentstributedtothedifferencesacrossgroups.

Toexplainwhyonegroupimprovedmorethahergroupsafterthelearningo，theresearjecturedthatthestudentsinthemoresuccessfulgrouplearopayattentiontothedifferejsoundandthesjsound（andothersouodifferentspellijsoundasparedtodifferentspellingsofthesjsousbesitizedteofdifferehestudehergroups.HeheyhadmoreopportunitiesfwhattheyhadlearheyreadorwrotesomethinginSwedishsubsequeiihisplyabetterpreparationforfuturelearning，inthesenseusedbyBransfordandSchwartz（1999）.

Providingforindividualdifferences.

&udydestheprevioussewasablendofJapaudy”

anddesign-basedresearqvistetal.，inpress）.Insudedapproach，calledlearningstudy，aisbyagroupofteachersassistedbyaresearcher.Thestudents'prioftheobjectisrevealedbymeansofapretest.Oneormorelessudentsdevelopaandingoftheobjectbybuildingupos'pris.Thelesson（orsequenceoflessons）iscarriedoutbyoeachers.Studentsareassessedafterthelessosaredisrelationtolathe.Asaresult，thelessonisrevisedandtaughtbyaeaestudymightpriseoofoursuchiterativecycles.

&y-seveiaresearddevelopmeaimedatprovidingforindividualdifferehrstudiesinHongKoentionaidtolow-agstudeicuseofvariationtedasthemainapproachtotheei（Lo，Pong＆Chik，2005）.Seventeenlesshanumberbeingrevisedowice，foratotalof27lessons.Inallofthelessons，variatioemati25ofthe27cases，studentsperfnifitlybetterafterthelessonthantheyhadbefore.Furthermore，thisimprovementwassignifitlyhigheramonginitiallylow-agstudentsthanamonghigh-agstudents，eveionwasmadefeffesfertotheannualattaiwasfound，especiallyforthelow-agstudents.Finally，researchersobservedthathigh-agstudentsdevelopedinsightsthatweheobjectameasuredbytheassessmenttools.